Causes and Effects of Overpopulation Essay Example

Causes and Effects of Overpopulation Paper The most effective tools in the con-q quest of disease have been improved knowledge about nutrition, vaccinations, bet-term public health practices and the development of new medicines 17 In the late ass, a baby born in Iceland was 32 times more likely to live to the age of one year as a baby born in Afghanistan. 8 The major reason for this large differ-once in survival rate is nutrition. In many nations the people know about proper nutrition for young children and adults. The second most important factor is vaccinations. As far back as 1800, science-tests knew how to use vaccines to protect people from infectious disease. Use of that knowledge has reduced the rate of diseases like influenza, smallpox, polio and rubella in Meds. Again, lack of resources has prevented many Third, better public health practices– the germ theory of disease, discovered by Louis Pasteur in the sass clearly demonstrated that a arson’s health was also a community problem. Sewage dumped into a public water supply could cause dish-ease throughout the community. With this understanding, the science of public health was born. Today, public health measures like waste treatment, water purify-action, vaccination, and nutritional education are well developed in Meds And finally, with the advent of new medicines, disease was less of a problem in Meds because medical science has invented a whole range of new medicines with which to treat everything from infections to pneumonia. We will write a custom essay sample on Causes and Effects of Overpopulation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Causes and Effects of Overpopulation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Causes and Effects of Overpopulation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In many Lads, new drugs and medicines are simply not available. 2 Progress in medical science has, therefore, had a great effect on the population of most nations of the world. Nearly everywhere death rates have fallen. Rapid population growth can affect both the overall quality of life and the degree of huh-man suffering on Earth. 31 Decline in the Death Rate: Reduced mortality rate is one of the leading causes of overpopulation. Due to medical advancements, many of the once incurable diseases have cures today. Owing to advances in both preventive and curative medicine, diseases have either been eradicated or have more effective treatments now. There are effective ways to control epidemics and there are better measures to treat critical health ailments, thus leading to a drop in death rates. Developments in medicine have led to reduced mortality and increase in the average life expectancy of humans. Infant mortality rates are very low and cases of deaths during childbirth are less frequent. Good prenatal care has improved the chances of survival for both the mother and the baby. Rise in the Birth Rate: Once again owing to advances in medicine, the average birth rate has gone up. Due to various fertility treatments available today, there are effective solutions to infertility problems, which increases chances of conception. Due to modern medicine, pregnancies are safer. In case of inception after a fertility treatment, there are chances of a multiple pregnancy, further contributing to increasing birth rates. In addition to this, there is a social pressure to have children. Lack of Education: Illiteracy is another important factor that contributes to overpopulation. Those lacking education fail to understand the need to curb population growth. Modern methods of birth control and family planning don’t reach the illiterate sections Of society. Furthermore, due to lack of awareness there is resistance in adopting such methods. The illiterate are unable to understand what impact overpopulation can have. The educated class can make more responsible decisions about marriage and childbirth. Thus education is an effective tool to curb overpopulation. Cultural Influences: The concept of birth control is not widely accepted. Adopting birth control measures is considered taboo in certain cultures. Some cultures foster beliefs where marrying at a certain age or having a certain number of children is considered to be ideal. In some cultures male children are preferred. This indirectly forces couples to produce children till a child of the preferred gender is conceived. Plus, there is a pressure from the Emily and society to have children. Social norms influence decisions of starting and extending one’s family. In cultures where a woman’s role is considered to be that of a child-bearer, large families become the norm. By Manila Oak (7/1 1/2012) – Effects of Overpopulation:Water and Air Pollution Water and air pollution continue to affect the lives of many Americans. Since the creation of the Clean Water and Clean Air Acts, significant improvements have been made to our overall water and air quality, but studies show the problem still persists at harmful levels. Beginning in the sass, pollution increased to levels comparable to those found in the 1 sass. The following information will show evidence Of this scenario-Despite our best efforts, pollution remains a major threat to our general health and well-being. Conceptualization growth will only make these conditions worse. Water Pollution America’s Troubled Waters, a report by US Public Interest Research Groups (U.S. PRIG), cites the following statistics regarding the state of America’s waterways: Approximately 39 % of our rivers, 46% of our lakes, and 51% of our estuaries are still too polluted for safe fishing or swimming. Pollution caused early 20,000 beach closings in 2004, the highest level in 15 years. In 2004, 31 states had statewide fish consumption advisories in place because of toxic pollution. The Pea’s Waddle Streams Assessment finds that 42% of all U. S. Stream miles are in poor condition. Marathon half of those found in the eastern portion of the U. S. And 40% of those in the central region are considered to be in poor condition. According to American Rivers and the website healthiness. Org: Eighty percent of streams contain insecticides, drugs, or other chemicals. During 2002 and 2003, in just Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota and Missouri, pollution in rivers and streams killed 3. 5 million fish. The number of miles Of rivers containing fish that may be harmful to your health due to pollution, increased from 2% to 14% from 1993 to 2001. Waterborne germs and parasites cause an estimated 7. Million mild-to- moderate cases of infectious disease in the U. S. Annually. Every year more than 1. 2 trillion gallons of untreated sewage, storm water and industrial waste are discharged into U. S. Waters. The EPA warns that sewage levels in our rivers could be back to sass levels by the year 2016 Air Pollution The Environmental Defense Fund reports that 80% of the cancer risks from air pollutants nationwide is from mobile transportation sources. As our cities and suburbs continue to grow at record pace, pollution emitted by commuters will only grow worse. About 70 percent of the heavy construction equipment used in California in 2005 was old enough not to have to face any emission control regulations, according to the union of Concerned Scientists. According to the air pollution program of Clear the Air, a collective of grassroots and environmental organizations dedicated to combating global arming: Electricity generation is our nation’s largest source of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The Clean Air Act and other environmental measures have not succeeded in lowering power plant pollution. EPA and other studies have shown that far greater reductions are needed to meaningfully reduce the public health and environmental damage caused by ASS emissions from power plants. Fine particle pollution results in the premature deaths of more than 45,000 people in the U. S. Each year. Plagued by Pollution, a report by US PRIG, cites the following statistics regarding the State Of America’s air: While our air quality has improved in the U. S. Since the inception of the Clean Air Act of 1970, more than 88 million Americans still live in areas with unsafe levels of fine particle pollution. In 2004, fine particle pollution exceeded the annual and/or daily national health standard at air quality monitors in 55 small, mid-sized, and large metropolitan areas located in 21 states and home to 96 million people. Negative Population Growth â €“ GNP – is a national membership organization founded in 1 972 to educate the American public and political leaders about he detrimental effects of overpopulation on our environment, resources and quality of life. NP advocates a smaller and truly sustainable united States population accomplished through voluntary incentives for smaller families and reduced immigration levels. We are pleased to provide to you this fact sheet as part of our Effects of Overpopulation educational series. We sincerely hope you will use this information in your classroom in order to educate your students regarding the detrimental effects of an overpopulated nation. We also welcome your feedback on how to make this series more effective in reaching today’s youth OVERPOPULATION Overpopulation is a term that refers to a condition by which the population density enlarges to a limit that provokes the environmental deterioration, a remarkable decline in the quality of life, or a population co llapse. The term population density denotes the number of inhabitants dwelling in a specific area, for example: 100 inhabitants per square Kilometer. The impact of human populations on the environment has been severe. Some animal species have been extinguished or forced to live in inhospitable regions by the advance of urban areas; pollution is a problem that is increasing gradually because we are using more cars. Emerging countries industrialization is not paying attention to environmental issues because of the feeding demands of their ever-growing populations. The human overpopulation has been credited to diverse factors, as the increment in life-span, the absence of natural enemies, the improvement in the quality of life, and the accessibility to get better goods. Every year, more than 81 million people add the world-wide population. Every 10 years almost one billion inhabitants are added to the world’s population. CURRENT EFFECTS OF OVERPOPULATION Due to the opening out o f human settings, 1 6 million hectares of forest are chopped down each year. The accelerated growth of the human populations has propitiated the destruction of natural habitats of many species. People are invading the habitats of those species, replacing them to inhospitable places and condemning the native species to the extinction. The speed of extinction of plants and animals attributable to human activities is 1 0,000 times faster than the natural quotient. About 5 million people die every year from illnesses associated to organic wastes. Too dense human communities produce tons of solid wastes (organic and inorganic waste) daily, consume large quantities of energy and emit more pollutants to the environment. Water necessities will increase to by 2025. Approximately, one half Of wetlands around the world have been lost since 1900. In LISA, consumption of materials (wood, metals, synthetics, etc. ) has grown 18-fold since 1900. The Ozone layer has been gradually ruined by the eff ect of the CIFS. The concentration of CIFS has been increased as the human population has grown, and the thickness of the Ozone layer has been lesser to the extent that a hole in the layer has been formed. Scientists have found that there are there emissions derived from human activities, which have contributed to the depletion Of the ozone layer. Inhale, Nanas. (2003). Overpopulation. Published on 10 November 2003 by Biology Cabinet Organization. Http://Boca. Org/overpopulation. HTML. Last visit on (day) (month) (year). Retrieved from http://www. Boca. Org/ overpopulation. HTML Effects of overpopulation Food Shortage The more people there are, the greater amount Of food is needed. If there is not enough food to feed people in a specific place, then there is food shortage in that place. When people do not get enough food, their health is effected. People become undernourished when they do not have enough food to eat. Undernourished children are more likely to get sick. Water Shortag e When population increases, the demand for water also increases. Farmers need more water to irrigate their fields so that they can produce more crops. Factories need more water to use in manufacturing more goods. More households need more water for drinking, cooking, washing clothes, personal hygiene and many other activities. Water shortage is evident when people have to walk a long way to get water, or when they have to queue up to get it. Many people do not have access to potable water. They get their water from springs, rivers, wells and rain. The quality fatter that people get may be poor. Water shortage in a community can bring about problems related to sanitation and health. Limited Space The population of a place increases in just a short time. However, the space in a place remains the same. When the houses in a neighborhood are overcrowded, it shows that the population in the area is too big. This is a common sight in a city. Many poor people build shanties along creeks, i n dumpiest or along railroads. More than one family may share a shanty. Overpopulation in a community can limit space for housing. Health Problems Food shortage, overcrowding poor water supply and environmental pollution affect the health of the people, particularly the children. Poor environmental sanitation is a major cause of diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid and cholera. Dirty insects such as flies and cockroaches contaminate food with disease- causing germs. Many children who play barefoot in dirty areas and do not wash their hands before eating become infected with worms. Some respiratory’ diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and bronchitis are worsened by polluted air.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing IT331-02AU: Technology InfrastructureInstructor Jason LitzIn telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing is a process where multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using one wire. It originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications.Multiplexing is provided by the physical layer of the OSI model, while multiple access also involves a media access control protocol, which is part of the data link layer. The frequency band from 88 MHz to 108 MHz is reserved over the public airwaves for commercial FM broadcasting. The 88-108 MHz frequency band is divided into 200 kHz sub-bands.The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.Interference is the biggest single problem with the AWS-3 band, as planned, permits the use of the entire 25 MHz of spectrum for both transmitting from the cell sites to the devices and for the devices to transmit back to the cell sites. Time Division Duplex or TDD, requires the cell site and device transmitters to share the same spectrum with the cell transmitter talking to the mobile device and then listening for a response. This gives customers the allusion that they are using a system that permits simultaneous two-way communications, which is called duplex and is common in all commercial wireless systems. Yes, Clearwire is using this type of system, but not adjacent to spectrum using the standard...

QI IV IMPLEMENTING AND REVISING Research Proposal

QI IV IMPLEMENTING AND REVISING - Research Proposal Example In addition, strategic planning of implementation can bring great change in any given organization. It clearly shows the missions and goals to be achieved by the organization. In order to plan an effective implantation process; one should ensure that there is active support from the board of executive, effective communication, and employee involvement (Gorman, 2001). The board of directors provides quality leadership for the QI process. It reviews, evaluates and puts in place the quality improvement services. The team also helps in supporting and directing the implementation of enhanced quality activities in the program. Successful planning implementation calls for extensive commitments from the board of directors and senior managers. The executive committee has a crucial role to play during the process. For instance, they must guide, support, monitor and live to the outcomes of the process, failure to this, the strategic process will simply be unsuccessful. Without extra commitment of the organization’s executives, the participants are likely to feel misled and unsatisfied with the results. Senior executive should draw a clear vision and mission for the planning implementation process. In addition, they should taint a picture to show the expected out comes. The executive can also appoint a leader such as an executive champion to ‘’own â€Å"the strategic process. Executives should sponsor some portions that involve the process. They become an involved participant that enables them to interact with other members of the organization. Executive leadership should steer up the committee, planning team and leadership group. They develop a performance plan within the management to reinforce, and communicate a structure that enhances the delivery and accomplishment of the planning goals. The quality improvement committee comprises of a wide range of health practitioners such as network physicians and the psychiatric health workers. It develops and comments the quality improving plan. It identifies opportunities for enhancement, outlines performance goals and guides the quality interventions. The committee is responsible for approving and updating the time plan. Subsequently, the committee carries out the quality evaluation process, analyzes, and summarizes work done within a given time span. It is evident that the committee monitors health activities and creates a work plan for each activity and the people responsible. In addition, it reports to the board of directors on the quality improvement services on a regular basis (Breen, et.al, 2010). Thirdly, improving the quality of a medical program requires the mobilization of medical staff. They should be equipped with enough technical expertise in Quality improvement methods and tools. Medical staff in a quality improvement program includes the medical clinicians, laboratory technicians, and pharmacists. Quality services of a medical staff improve the services of Services of a ny medical program. Clinicians ensure that patients receive quality medical care. They also ensure that all patients/clients receive their medical prescription according to the doctor’s prescription. They coordinate quality care by ensuring that all the equipment’s needed during medical services are readily available. Extensive involvement of the medical staff enhances the effectiveness of quality improving strategies. Furthermore, the participation of senior physicians should

Answer the questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Answer the questions - Essay Example The scope entails establishing the capability of the system to interact with other elements within the environment with which the system operates is essential. The requirements of the users must be assessed effectively to ensure that they are incorporated within the operation of the system. The identification of system weaknesses is fundamental in seeking to establish a properly functioning system to undertake the required functions. Limitations into the process of system analysis are the regulations that exist with regard to the technology that can be utilised in establishing a functioning system. Technological differences between the system and the applications being utilised presents a significant challenge to system analysts Fact-finding measures are essential in the determination of the functions that a system can undertake, with regard to the user requirements. Use cases provide a platform upon which system usability is commonly analysed. Information gained from fact-finding and use cases is essential in system analysis, as it is the fundamental base upon which decisions regarding the system are made. Technological discrepancies are commonly solved by undertaking an analysis of the available technology during the feasibility study. These social settings provide an individual with guidelines through which daily activities are based upon. Before undertaking any personal activity, one requires to make an analysis of the activities involved in order to determine which one comes before the others. The consideration for the environment within which one undertakes his/her activities is essential in ensuring that no harm comes to the society. The limitations that an individual experiences in life come from the knowledge possessed, and the values held by the individual. The fundamental assumptions within the context of this project include the capability of an individual to undertake an object analysis of self, and the capability to undertake the

The current strengths and weaknesses of sterling Essay

The current strengths and weaknesses of sterling - Essay Example The latter part of the essay deals with some measures that the bank of England could adopt so as to be able to resolve the particular problem that the United Kingdom is facing due to its weak currency. The value of the currency is important for any country because it determines, as Vlaar (2007) states, the position of the country in the world market. The exchange rate (the ratio between the local and foreign currencies) takes into account the present value of the currency of a particular country and ascertains the differences with respect to other currencies. This comparison is necessary because this way the effect of the exchange rates on the import and the export growth can be studied. Exchange rates are a critical determinant of the success of countries in terms of economic development. The impacts of the exchange rate on the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) are far reaching and so it is pertinent to study the values of currencies with respect to other currencies. In this paper, I would focus on the current value of sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, and compare it to the values of the other major currencies thereby determining its strengths and weaknesses. For the purpose of research I have analyzed a few literature reviews. From the study of the value of sterling in the past two to three years one fact that is quite evident is that the value of sterling has been falling continuously. Although there have been minor deviances from the overall downward trend, for instance the value of the pound sterling rose by one penny against the Euro in February 2009, the value of pound has fallen by 16% with respect to the American Dollar and by 21% with respect to the Euro since early 2008, as Hyde (2010) states. There was a point in September 2009 according to Steiner et al. (2009) when the value of the sterling was even less than 1 â‚ ¬. The rate at which the sterling was exchanged to the Euro was just 0.99. The falling

Language A System Of Communication English Language Essay

Language A System Of Communication English Language Essay A language is a system of communication by using sounds or conventional symbols. It is through language that we are able to express ourselves and communicate to others. Everyone knows the importance of English Language in todays world as it is an international language. At present time as the world has turned into a global village, so we cannot deny the importance of English Language. As English is a global language, it enables us to communicate with people belonging to different cultures. Most of the researches in different fields of life e.g. medicine, education, economy, e-commerce and aviation etc are done in English Language. It is also the language used in tourism. These reasons become a source of motivation for people to learn this language. The knowledge of English Language is vital if a person wants to access electronic information available on the internet. In addition, English is also a requirement in most government and private jobs. The use of English Language provides many prospects in the social and financial world. Greddol (1997) specifies the uses of English Language in different fields of life: English is the working language of international organizations and conferences. English is used in the fields of science and technology. It is used in international banking, economic affairs and commerce. Advertising for global brands is done in English. English is the language of audio visual and cultural products. It is the language of international tourism. It is the language of higher education. English is the language of international law. It is a relay language in interpretation and translation. It is the language of technology transfer. It is the language of internet communication. Importance of English Language in Pakistan English Language has a lot of importance in Pakistan. It is our official language. It is used in civil administration. It is the language of the constitution and of the legal system. It is also used in media. English is also used in international trade and commerce in Pakistan. It is used in the stock exchange as well. All the information available on the internet is in English. All the modern scientific researches and books available on them are in English. English is taught as a compulsory subject from nursery and Kindergarten levels. English is the medium of instruction in the English medium schools of the country. It is also the main cause of failure of students because it is not our first language but it is taught as a compulsory subject. This shows the role and importance of English in Pakistan. It has become important for every student to learn English as its importance is growing day by day. We cannot survive in the economic world without the tool of English language. Aims of Learning a Language Coleman (1996) stated most popular reasons for learning modern languages among the students as for future career, because I like the language, to travel in different countries, to have a better understanding of way of the life in a country or countries where it is spoken, because I would like to live in a country where it is spoken etc. Cook (2002) made a list of the aims for which a second language is learnt: Self-development A method of training new cognitive process A way-in to mother tongue An entrà ©e to another culture A means of communication Self -development Some people learn the second language for their self-development. They think that they will do their self-development by learning a second language and will become a better person. A method of training new cognitive process When people learn new language, they learn about themselves and their societies from new perspectives. A way-in to the mother tongue If people learn a second language, in fact, they make clear the concept of their first language. We can say that they learn their first language with the help of second language. An entrà ©e to another culture People also learn another language because they also want to know about the country where it is spoken. They want to have the knowledge of art, literature, music and culture of that country. A means of communication Some people learn another language in order to be able to communicate with the people who speak that language. The above mentioned goals of learning a second language can be classified into two main groups i.e. internal and external goals (Cook, 1938). External goals. External goals relate to the learning of language for the use of language outside the classroom. For example, for traveling a country, reading literature, communicating native speakers, to gain education from foreign country, traveling shops, markets etc. Internal goals. Internal goals refer to the students mental and self-development as individuals. They may think from different perspective about themselves and their societies. Through the last century, external goals have been dominating the internal goals. English Language Teaching (ELT) in Pakistan English plays a very important role in Pakistan as lingua franca. English is taught in a very strange manner in the country. Students belonging to rural backgrounds and even other students are taught English in schools and colleges but they are still not able to communicate in English comfortably and confidently. One of the reasons behind this is that our educational system is not aware that they should focus on all the four skills of the language. Only the skills of reading and writing are focused, while the skills of listening and speaking are neglected. The students do not get the required input. The students can never speak the language because they do not listen to it. Our teachers teach English language through translation. They translate everything in Urdu. In this way the students are not motivated to learn it. The teachers speak Urdu in English classes. If the students find anything difficult to understand, the teacher will instantly translate it in Urdu instead of explaining it in English. This is the situation in government sector schools. The condition is different in private schools. This wide gap between government and private schools is not healthy for a developing nation. Private schools are also giving importance to the two neglected skills of listening and speaking. Creativity is promoted and students are motivated to speak in English even outside their classes. It is very important for a teacher to know the process of language learning. It is the duty of the teacher to bring different activities in the class to develop a healthy environment in the class which promotes language learning. Our teachers of the government sector focus on accuracy and the students are supposed to memorize the language. In this way, the students do not feel comfortable to communicate in English. Siddiqui (2002) stated that the significant position of English in subcontinent it due to its colonial past. During that period, this language promoted due to its privileged status and it was the official language. Learning English language was a key to get a job and enjoy the privileges from the government. But some fundamentalists Muslims refused to acquire this language because they wanted to hold strongly their own language i.e. Urdu. They believed that acquiring English language will be the sign of their salvation. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan took initiative considering the importance of learning English language. He started some educational movements throughout the subcontinent which brought a revolution in the economic status of Muslims. After the independence of Pakistan, Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan. Urdu language was able to be treated as lingua-franca- a language of communication. Urdu was such language that could be spoken by the people of different provinces in Pakistan. With the passage of time, regional languages went on losing their importance and Urdu language overcame them but English remained the official language of Pakistan even then. Many policies were offered at government level to replace Urdu with English as official language but it retained its position. In mainstream schools, English language was to be taught from class five but now it is taught as compulsory subject from class one. The demand of English is very high in Pakistan. People like to send their children in English medium schools. The number of students in English medium schools is very large. The government had offered a policy of teaching English to everyone but this policy is not giving us a desired outcomes. We do not have qualified teachers to do the job properly. There are many factors which can show the state of English language teaching in Pakistan. These include, Students Teachers Textbooks Methodology Evaluation Supervisory staff Economic problems Over crowded classes Students Everyone up to the Bachelor level has to study English as a compulsory subject. Many students do not like this compulsion because the students who come from the rural back ground are not motivated towards learning English. Their parents cannot help them because they are mostly uneducated. They are not clear in learning the purpose of learning English language. They think that only good student scan learn English language. Some people have realized the basic purpose of learning English language in modern age. They have realized that the English is the key to any success and to get a good job. Teachers In majority of our schools, English is taught with a well known and classic method i.e. Grammar Translation Method (GTM). Teachers who teach English are not well trained. In government sector schools, English is taught by B.Ed degree hold teachers who have studied English at B.Ed level as optional subject. They teach English to their students as they have been taught by their own teachers. At college level, English language is taught by the teachers who have done Masters in English literature. In Pakistan, teaching English language is considered as teaching literature. These teachers become failure when the matter of written and oral discourse comes. Text books The syllabus is emphasized on just two skills i.e. reading and writing skills while very little importance is given to the listening and speaking skill. Our text books are full of stories, poems, plays, essays etc. because the curriculum designers have mostly the literature based background. So their preference is also literature based. The content of our books is also very large. The teachers are always at pressure by the principles and the parents of the students. So the preference of the teachers is the completion of the course by some easy way without giving emphasize on concept making. Teachers are not guided well that how to teach a text book. Evaluation The assessment system of English language in Pakistan is very weak. The exams are mostly rote-memorization based. In exams, same questions are repeated again and again. The guide books are available in market to give the students the summaries and answers of the questions. Supervisory staff The supervisory staff is unaware of the latest methods of teaching English language. They aim just to get high marks to their students for the popularity of their school and college. Economic problems Economic problems and lack of facilities is also a major problem in the process of teaching and learning of English language in Pakistan. Due to the lack of funds, there are not audio visual aids, language laboratories etc in Pakistan. Teachers are also not trained for using them. Over crowded classes In the government sector schools, Classes are overcrowded. The environment in the class is not learners friendly. Methods of English Language Teaching According to Asher and James (1982), Methods are the combination of techniques that are used and plasticized by the teachers in the classrooms in order to teach their students and approaches are the philosophies of teachers about language teaching that can be applied in the classrooms by using different techniques of language teaching. For example, if a teacher has an approach that language is the communication and learning a language is in fact learning the meanings, functions and uses of language. So the techniques will be based on the communicative language teaching and task based methods. According to Freeman (2000), Methods which are taught to the teachers make a base and give them thinking about the applicable techniques and principles according to the situation where they stand. They are clear about their attraction towards certain methods and also think that why have they repelled certain method. The knowledge of method is very necessary because their knowledge is base of teaching. History of Language Teaching Today, English is the worlds most widely studied foreign language. Five hundred years ago, Latin was the most dominant language to be studied because it was the language of business, commerce and education in the western world. In the sixteenth century, however, French, Italian and English gain in importance as a result of political change in Europe and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken and written communication. Latin became a dead language. It was being started to read in the books as classic language. Children started to enter in the grammar school in sixteenth and eighteenth centuries to learn grammar rules of Latin. To learn Latin language became a mental gymnastic. In the eighteenth century, when modern languages began to enter in the curriculum of the European countries, these languages were taught by the same methods as Latin language was taught. Grammatical rules were memorized. Written practices were done. The passages were translated from the second language to the first language and vice versa. By the nineteenth century, this method was considered as a standard method of teaching language. The textbooks were divided into chapters. Each chapter contained a certain grammatical rule and rule was practices with a lot of written exercises (Richards, and Rodgers, 1986). Grammar Translation Method Grammar translation method was first known in the United States as Prussian Method. Grammar translation method dominated European and foreign language teaching from 1840 to 1940. Characteristics of grammar translation method According to the Richards and Rodgers (1986), the principle characteristics of Grammar Translation Method are: In Grammar Translation Method, the goal of learning a second or foreign language is mainly to be enabling to read the literature of that language and is to get benefit from intellectual development that results from foreign and second language study. Grammar Translation Method enables to learn detailed grammatical rules of target language and enables to translate into and out of the target language. In Grammar Translation Method, reading and writing skills are focused while listening and speaking skills are totally ignored. In Grammar Translation Method, the memorization of grammatical rules of foreign language and of the vocabulary items is focused. Vocabulary items are limited to the text that they are taught. Vocabulary items are memorized with the help of their meanings in the native language. In Grammar Translation Method, sentenced is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. The learners are enabled to do detailed analysis of a sentence through this method. The learners are enabled to translate a sentence into and out of the target language. In Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency. The basic purpose of this method used to be able to pass the written examinations. In Grammar Translation Method, grammar is taught deductively i.e. by presenting and practicing the detailed grammatical rules of target language. A syllabus of grammatical rules if followed in which rules are systematically put in to a sequence starting from the simple rules to the complex rules. In Grammar Translation Method, students are directed and instructions are given in the students native language so that they may easily understand the instructions. The students native language is used to explain new items and to enable them to compare two languages i.e. native language of the learners and foreign language. Main techniques associated with grammar translation method There are some major techniques that are adopted in the teaching of second or foreign language through Grammar Translation Method. Translation of a literary passage. Students translate a reading passage into and out of the target language. In checking of the translation, the focus of the teacher is on vocabulary and grammatical structures. The translation may be written or spoken or both. Students should not translate idioms but must understand their meanings. Reading Comprehension Questions. A passage for reading and understanding is given to the students and they have to answer the questions given at the end of the passage in the target language. The questions are put into a sequence. The first group of questions is related with the information drawn from the passage, second group of questions require students to make inferences based on their understanding of the passage. The third group of questions requires students to relate the passage with their own experiences. Antonym and synonyms. Students are given a list of words and a passage. The students have to find out the antonyms of those words in the passage. Similarly, the students can also be given a list of words and can be asked to find out the synonyms of the given words from the passage. Deductive application of rules. Grammar rules are presented before the students with the all possible information that can be given to the students relating to the grammatical rules. The rules are also explained with examples. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it for some different examples. Fill in the blanks. The students are given a series of sentences with some missing words. The students have to fill in the blanks with some suitable grammar items such a preposition and verbs with different tenses. Memorization. The students are given a list of vocabulary to memorize them with their meaning in the native language. Students are also required to memorize the grammatical rules. Use words in sentences. In order to check the understanding of the meaning and sue of vocabulary, the students are asked to use the list of typical words in their own sentences. Composition. The teacher gives a topic to the students to write about that topic in the target language. The topic is based on some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Advantages of grammar translation method Nazir (2002) narrated as The structure of a foreign language is best learnt when compare and contrasted with that of the mother tongue. According to Ishtiaq (2005), the Grammar Translation Method is based on a system and is in a sequence because in this method all the grammatical rules are arranged into a sequence for the convenience of the students. This sequence starts from the simple rules and eventually leads to the complex rules. When a book is written by an author on grammatical rules keeping in view the sequence, he writes one lesson that is completely based on one rule of grammar. Each lesson is divided into certain rules and these rules dominate the lesson. Larson (1986) narrated importance of Grammar Translation Method as in Grammar Translation Method, students are made to learn new words. Therefore, this method helps in improving vocabulary. Reading and writing are the two primary skills that are developed most so as to enable the students to read the literature in target language. Grammar is taught deductively and it makes use of students mother language. Disadvantages of grammar translation method Neilson (2003) stated that in Grammar Translation Method, oral skills i.e. speaking and listening skills are totally neglected while the whole attention is given to just reading and writing skills. Through this method, the students become able to read the literature of the target language by translating it into their native language but cannot communicate into the target language and even cannot understand the target language spoken by any native speaker. In Grammar Translation Method, the authority of the classroom is totally in the hands of the teacher and teacher is at the centre of the classroom. The communication is just from teachers to students not from student to teacher and not even from students to students. The students are considered empty minded which have needed to be filled with all the possible vocabulary and grammatical structures that can be filled in their minds. The main disadvantage of the Grammar Translation Method is that it is almost impossible to translate all the phrases and sentences into the target language because the main focus is the translation of this method so such students who have been taught through this method become fail to communicate well in the target language. In the Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency and students go on thinking to accurate the grammatical rules which actually hinder their fluency. In Grammar Translation Method, the teacher abruptly interferes and stops the students wherever they make the mistakes so they become conscious while speaking and communicating in the target language and become unable to be fluent. Criticism of the grammar translation method There have been various criticisms on the use of Grammar Translation Method for the teaching of modern language particularly English. There are some objections that have been put on the Grammar Translation Method. Grammar Translation Method emphasizes on the reading and writing skills on the expense of listening and speaking skills. But learning the listening and speaking skills of a language is more important than leaning reading and writing skills because it is a natural way of learning a language. In Grammar Translation Method, writing gives learners a reflective chance to look at their writing that whether they have written correct spellings, vocabulary and grammatical rules. The main aim and goal of most of the learners in learning modern languages is not just to develop reading and writing skills whereas they want to communicate well and understand the native speakers language. Grammar Translation Method demands the arrangement of the grammatical rules in a structure starting from the simple rules and leading to the complex rules. While most of the learners especially adult learners want to start using the language straight way because they have not got time to learn all the grammatical rules one by one and start using them after then. Grammar Translation Method emphasizes to make the students learn each rule and practice it one by one and after commanding a rule move to the next one. So there remains the need to revise all the rules again and again so that they may not get washed out of the learners mind. In Grammar Translation Method, sentence is the basic unit of the language. The learners are made able to memorize certain rules of grammar and certain vocabulary which they have to fit everywhere they find a chance to use them. But if learners find some unusual situation they become unable to fit their memorized rules to fit in that situation. In Grammar Translation Method, grammatical rules and vocabulary is memorized in modern ways of teaching a language memorization is not regarded while exposure of a language, experience and use of language is preferred and recommended. People have different learning styles. Some people like to learn vocabulary, grammar rules, phrase and sentences through memorization. But when they have to sue them, they must have time to stop and recall the memorized items. In Grammar Translation Method, the focus of the learners is the manipulation of the grammatical rules and words to write correct sentences with prescribed content. But in learning the modern languages, it is recommended that the major focus should be more and more on the oral practice and expression of the personal meanings. The expression of the personal meanings may spoil the structure of the grammar rules and sentences. In Grammar Translation Method, the teachers and the learners mostly speak in their first language or native language. While it is highly recommended that use of second and target language should be maximized in learning the language but here maximization does not mean teachers and learners should all the time speak in the target language. The speaking of the second language is also advantageous because in language classrooms we may also have multilingual learners that may belong to different languages so a single language i.e. second or target language will be convenient to use without pointing a single native language. In Grammar Translation Method, teacher should explain, describe the grammatical rules, tell the meanings of the words, translate the passages, conduct grammar practices, correct mistakes and teacher should authorized the classroom and learners. But now it is highly recommended that teachers role in the class should be as a guide and facilitator. Teachers role in the language classroom should be less. Teacher should act behind the scene. Teacher should give the problems to the learners to solve, interact among each other and generally it leads the learners to be independent learners. In Grammar Translation Method, translation is the basic technique. Translation is a way of understanding the meanings of the written and oral texts by converting the texts into the first or native language of the learners. Translation is a way of comparing and contrasting two languages i.e. first language and second language. But now it is highly recommended that translation should be avoided because it leads to such a mental process which hinders or stops learning. The learners should be encouraged to speak and even think in second language as much as possible. In Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency but it is now highly recommended that accuracy should come at the last and fluency should preferred first. If the learners are corrected on their mistakes from the very beginning, they will become hesitant to speak in the target language. When they will start to speak, their minds will abruptly become read to look upon the grammatical rules that they are using so I this way they will become unable to be fluent in language (Jonathan, 2012) Grammar translation method in Pakistan Faiq (2003) stated that in most of the Pakistani schools, Grammar Translation Method is used to teach English. In Pakistan, Grammar Translation Method is used to learn and memorize the grammatical rules in such a way that rules are deductively presented and practiced through the exercises of translation, fill in the blanks and by using such other techniques. Mostly students are taught certain letters, applications and stories like thirsty crow, greedy dog etc. In Pakistan, it is considered that learning a language means just to be able to read literature and write certain kinds of things without giving importance to the listening and speaking skills. Grammar is taught through deductive method i.e. rules are presented to the learners, deep analysis of the rules is done and rules are used for translating passages of English into Urdu ad of Urdu into English. It is a common practice in our public sector schools that a student reads aloud the lines of a paragraph and teacher translate it into Urdu word by word. Teachers write the meanings of the difficult words on the blackboard. Linguists say that a language can be better learnt without translation and meanings of the difficult words can be told through demonstrations and actions. Language can be better learnt and taught by using it actively in the classrooms. Grammar can better learnt through inductive or implicit method i.e. exposure of a rule is provided to the learners and learners grasp that rule unconsciously. The importance of listening and speaking skill cannot be denied in the public sector schools of Pakistan. Writing is also an important skill but just copying the material from the blackboard is not a good practice. It limits the thinking process of the learners. Learners should be given some topics to write on them in their own words. In our schools, teachers and textbooks take the central role in the classroom while the students sit passively depending on the teachers and textbooks. The learners purpose of sitting in the classroom is to take lectures from the teachers. The interaction from the students to teachers is not ever into the consideration of public sector schools. They just know how to feed the minds of the learners with information. Learners should be considered as living beings with their own minds, ideas and thinking. The learners have their background knowledge. The use of the leaners background knowledge can be helpful for the teachers to teach a language. Direct Method The direct method was the outcome of the reaction against the grammar translation method. It was developed on the supposition that the learners of foreign and second language should directly think in English. This method is against the translation of written and oral text and focuses on telling the meanings of the words through action, demonstration or real objects. This method focuses on directly thinking, doing discussion and conversation in second language. According to Palmer (1959), the direct method has the following characteristics: Translation is banished in the language classrooms including the use of mother tongue. When grammar is taught inductively that means exposure is given to the learners related to the grammar rule that is being taught. Through this method grammar rule is internalized to the learners. Oral training precedes any sort of reading and writing. The learners are given chances for oral communication first and then it leads to the reading and writing skills of the language. We can say that listening and speaking skills lead to the reading and writing skills. The use of detached sentences is shifted by the use of connected text. The pronunciation is taught systematically through the system of phonetics and phonology of the target language. It means that learners are motivated to speak in the accent of the second language. So the learners have to follow the phonetics and phonology system of the second language. The use of bilingual dictionary is banished totally in the language classrooms. The teachers dont tell the meanings of the word through the learners native or first language while the difficult words are described through action or through natural context. The vocabulary and structures of the language are inculcated to large extent by the teachers and answered by the students. Purwarno

Cigarette Advertising Essay -- Tobacco Advertising

Smoking has become one of the world’s main concerns after the realization of its effect on human health. Tobacco was first introduced by Native Americans and was considered to be harmless and a stress reliever. Eventually, this habit became popular all over the world, and as normal as food. The increase in technology has brought out all the negative aspects and the side effects of smoking. Scientific analysis has proven that smoking is one of the main causes for death in the world. Since smoking has become a part of everyday life, quitting it has become even harder for those who are addicted. Advertisements and social pressure cause smoking with its devastating, life-threatening effects. Advertisements in the past were responsible for making smoking more popular all over the world. Many individual’s decision to smoke comes from advertisements which support smoking. Proclamations made by cigarette companies claim people will feel happier, more glamorous, and healthier. A suggestive proclamation by â€Å"Lucky Strike† company states, â€Å"Smoke Luckies! You’ll get the happy blending of perfect mildness and rich taste that fine tobacco – and only fine tobacco – can give you. . . . So get complete smoking enjoyment. Be Happy – Go Lucky today!† The company has used â€Å"lucky† as its product name trying to make consumers believe that anyone who smokes these cigarettes is lucky and will have happiness. Advertisements like this brought attention to cigarettes and set the stage for smoking to be accepted. It became common for people to smoke at any age. Young and old were all smoking cigarettes without understanding their consequences. Also, social pressure is the most important cause of people smoking because they see â€Å"everybody is do... ...rtisements. Although smoking can only cause problems to human health compared to the benefits, people will not stop. That is why everyone should try to avoid it. Smoking is a disaster for societies; it affects the economy as people smoke and as their need increases their habit pulls them even more. Decreasing their ability to be more productive can be the result of smoking. If countries are looking for their welfare, countries should start to make cigarettes illegal. Overall, smoking always works against our wellbeing. Works Cited Jacobs, Marjorie. From the First to the Last Ash: The History, Economics & Hazards of Tobacco. Cambridge: Marjorie Jacobs, 1995. Print. Joseph, Saad. Personal interview. 1 Nov. 2013. Lucky Strike. Advertisement. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. "Teens Health." Kids Health Smoking. Kids health, n.d. Web. 02 Nov. 2013.